home





























 

















 





















hrsa

participating institutions:
Johns Hopkins University AIDS Service, New York State DOH AIDS Institute, The CORE Center, Cook County Hospital



ART & PREGNANCY

last updated: January 24, 2001


COMPLETE GUIDELINES:


html pdf selected tables panel members


RELATED INFORMATION:


faqsnewslinks


References

  1. Connor EM, Sperling RS, Gelber R, et al. Reduction of maternal-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with zidovudine treatment. N Engl J Med 1994;331:1173-1180.
  2. CDC. Recommendations of the Public Health Service Task Force on use of zidovudine to reduce perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR;1994;43 (No. RR-11):1-21.
  3. CDC, U.S. Public Health Service recommendations for human immunodeficiency virus counseling and voluntary testing for pregnant women. MMWR 1995;44 (No. RR-7): 1-14.
  4. Cooper ER, Nugent RP, Diaz C, et al. After AIDS Clinical Trial 076: the changing pattern of zidovudine use during pregnancy, and the subsequent reduction in vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus in a cohort of infected women and their infants. J Infect Dis 1996;174:1207-1211.
  5. Fiscus SA, Adimora AA, Schoenbach VJ, et al. Perinatal HIV infection and the effect of zidovudine therapy on transmission in rural and urban counties. JAMA 1996;275:1483-1488.
  6. Fiscus SA, Adimora AA, Schoenbach VJ, et al. Trends in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) counseling, testing, and antiretroviral treatment of HIV-infected women and perinatal transmission in North Carolina. J Infect Dis 1999;180:99-105.
  7. Thomas P, Singh T, Bornschlegel K, et al. Use of ZDV to prevent perinatal HIV in New York City (NYC) [Abstract]. Proceedings from the Fourth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Washington. D.C., January 22-26, 1997 (Abstract 176). Washington, D.C.
  8. Mayaux M-J, Teglas J-P, Mandelbrot L, et al. Acceptability and impact of zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child human immunodeficiency virus-1 transmission in France. J Pediatr 1997;131:857-862.
  9. Simonds RJ, Steketee R, Nesheim S, et al. Impact of zidovudine use on risk and risk factors for perinatal transmission of HIV. AIDS 1998;12:301-308.
  10. Perelson AS, Neumann AU, Markowitz M, et al. HIV-1 dynamics in vivo: virion clearance rate, infected cell life span, and viral generation time. Science 1996;271:1582-1586.
  11. Havlir DV, Richman DD. Viral dynamics of HIV: implications for drug development and therapeutic strategies. Ann Intern Med 1996;124:984-994.
  12. Hammer SM, Squires KE, Hughes MD, et al. A controlled trial of two nucleoside analogues plus indinavir in persons with human immunodeficiency virus infection and CD4 cell counts of 200 per cubic millimeter or less. N Engl J Med 1997;337:725-733.
  13. Gulick RM, Mellors JW, Havlir D, et al. Treatment with indinavir, zidovudine and lamivudine in adults with human immunodeficiency virus infection and prior antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 1997;337:734-739.
  14. CDC, Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-infected adults and adolescents. MMWR 1998;47 (RR-5):39-82 (and updates http://www.hivatis.org).
  15. Mofenson LM. Interaction between timing of perinatal human immunodeficiency virus infection and the design of preventive and therapeutic interventions. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1997; 491:1-9.
  16. Olivero OA, Anderson LM, Diwan BA, et al. Transplacental effects of 3'-azido-2',3'-dideoxythymidine (AZT): tumorigenicity in mice and genotoxicity in mice and monkeys. J Natl Cancer Inst 1997;89:1602-1608.
  17. Minkoff H, Augenbraun M. Antiretroviral therapy for pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;176:478-489.
  18. Mills JL. Protecting the embryo from X-rated drugs. N Engl J Med 1995;333:124-5.
  19. CDC, Pregnancy outcomes following systemic prenatal acyclovir exposure- June 1, 1984 June 30, 1993. MMWR 1993;42:806-809.
  20. Lorenzi P, Spicher VM, Laubereau B, Hirschel B, Kind C, Rudin C, Irion O, Kaiser L. Antiretroviral therapies in pregnancy: maternal, fetal and neonatal effects. Swiss HIV Cohort Study, the Swiss Collaborative HIV and Pregnancy Study, and the Swiss Neonatal HIV Study [see comments]. AIDS 1998;12:F241-247.
  21. Martin R, Boyer P, Hammill H, Peavy H, Platzker A, Settlage R, Shah A, Sperling R, Tuomala R, Wu M. Incidence of premature birth and neonatal respiratory disease in infants of HIV-positive mothers. The Pediatric Pulmonary and Cardiovascular Complications of Vertically Transmitted Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Study Group. J Pediatr 1997;131:851-856.
  22. Leroy V, Ladner J, Nyiraziraje M, De Clercq A, Bazubagira A, Van de Perre P, Karita E, Dabis F. Effect of HIV-1 infection on pregnancy outcome in women in Kigali, Rwanda, 1992-1994. Pregnancy and HIV Study Group. AIDS 1998;12:643-650.
  23. Brocklehurst P, French R. The association between maternal HIV infection and perinatal outcome: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:836-848.
  24. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Public Health Advisory: reports of diabetes and hyperglycemia in patients receiving protease inhibitors for treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Food and Drug Administration, Public Health Service, Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD: June 11, 1997.
  25. Visnegarwala F, Krause KL, Musher DM. Severe diabetes associated with protease inhibitor therapy [letter]. Ann Intern Med 1997;127:947.
  26. Eastone JA, Decker CF. New-onset diabetes mellitus associated with use of protease inhibitor [letter]. Ann Intern Med 1997;127:948.
  27. Dube M. Metabolic complications of antiretroviral therapies. AIDS Clinical Care 1998;10:41-48.
  28. Brinkman K, Ter Hofstede HJM, Burger DM, et al. Adverse effects of reverse transcriptase inhibitors: mitochondrial toxicity as common pathway. AIDS 1998;12:1735-1744.
  29. Martin JL, Brown DE, Matthews-Davis N, Reardon JE. Effects of antiviral nucleoside analogues on human DNA polymerases and mitochondrial DNA synthesis. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 1994;38:2743-2749.
  30. Boxwell DE, Styrt BA., Lactic acidosis (LA) in patients receiving nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). 39th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. San Francisco, CA, September 26-29, 1999 (Abstract 1284).
  31. Ibdah JA, Bennett MJ, Rinaldo P, et al., A fetal fatty-acid oxidation disorder as a cause of liver disease in pregnant women. N Engl J Med, 1999. 340: p. 1723-1731.
  32. Strauss AW, Bennett MJ, Rinaldo P, et al., Inherited long-chain 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiency and a fetal-maternal interaction cause maternal liver disease and other pregnancy complications. Semin Perinatol, 1999. 23: p. 100-112.
  33. Sims HF, Brackett JC, Powell CK, et al., The molecular basis of pediatric long-chain 3-hydroxyacyl Co-A dehydrogenase deficiency associated with maternal acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 1995. 92: p. 841-845.
  34. Ibdah JA, Yang Z, Bennett MJ., Minireview: Liver disease in pregnancy and fetal fatty acid oxidation defects. Molecular Genetics and Metabolism, 2000. 71: p. 182-189.
  35. Grimbert S, Fromenty B, Fisch C, et al., Decreased mitochondrial oxidation of fatty acids in pregnant mice: possible relevance to development of acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Hepatology, 1993. 17: p. 628-637.
  36. Grimbert S, Fisch C, Deschamps D, et al., Effects of female sex hormones on mitochondria: possible role of acute fatty liver of pregnancy. Am J Physiol, 1995. 268: p. 6107.
  37. Fortgang IS, Belitsos PC, Chaisson RE, et al., Hepatomegaly and steatosis in HIV-infected patients receiving nucleoside analogue antiretroviral therapy. Am J Gastroenterol, 1995. 90: p. 1433-1436.
  38. Gerard Y, Maulin L, Yazdanpanah Y, et al., Symptomatic hyperlactatemia: an emerging complication of antiretroviral therapy. AIDS, 2000. 14: p. 2723-2730.
  39. Luzzati R, Del Bravo P, Di Perri G, et al., Riboflavine and severe lactic acidosis. Lancet, 1999. 353: p. 901-902.
  40. Bristol-Myers Squibb Company. Healthcare Provider Important Drug Warning Letter. January 5, 2001.
  41. Blanche S, Tardieu M, Rustin P, et al. Persistent mitochondrial dysfunction and perinatal exposure to antiretroviral nucleoside analogues. Lancet 1999;354:1084-1089.
  42. Sperling RS, Shapiro DE, McSherry GD, et al, Safety of the maternal-infant zidovudine regimen utilized in the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group 076 Study. AIDS, 1998. 12: p. 1805-1813.
  43. The Perinatal Safety Review Working Group. Nucleoside exposure in the children of HIV-infected women receiving antiretroviral drugs: absence of clear evidence for mitochondrial disease in children who died before 5 years of age in five United States cohorts. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol, 2000. 15: p. 261-268.
  44. Lange J, Stellato R, Brinkman K, et al. Review of neurological adverse events in relation to mitochondrial dysfunction in the prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV: PETRA study. Second Conference on Global Strategies for the Prevention of HIV Transmission from Mothers to Infants. September 1-6, 1999, Montreal, Canada (Abstract 250).
  45. Lipshultz SE, Easley KA, Orav EJ, et al., Absence of cardiac toxicity of zidovudine in infants. N Engl J Med, 2000. 343: p. 759-766.
  46. Morris AAM, Carr A. HIV nucleoside analogues: new adverse effects on mitochondria? Lancet 1999;354:1046-1047.
  47. Sperling RS, Shapiro DE, Coombs RW, et al. Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1621-1629.
  48. Sandberg JA, Slikker W Jr. Developmental pharmacology and toxicology of anti-HIV therapeutic agents: dideoxynucleosides. FASEB J 1995;9:1157-1163.
  49. Qian M, Bui T, Ho RJY, Unadkat JD. Metabolism of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (AZT) in human placental trophoblasts and hofbauer cells. Biochem Pharmacol 1994;48:383-389.
  50. Dancis J, Lee JD, Mendoza S, Liebes L. Transfer and metabolism of dideoxyinosine by the perfused human placenta. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1993;6:2-6.
  51. Sandberg JA, Binienda Z, Lipe G, Slikker Jr W. Placental transfer and fetal disposition of dideoxycytidine (ddC) and dideoxyinosine (ddI) [Abstract]. Toxicologist 1994;14;434.
  52. Eastman PS, Shapiro DE, Coombs RW, et al. Maternal viral genotypic zidovudine resistance and infrequent failure of zidovudine therapy to prevent perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trial Group Protocol 076. J Infect Dis 1998;177:557-564.
  53. Antiretroviral Pregnancy Registry. PharmaResearch Corporation, Wilmington, NC. January 1989 - July 1997.
  54. Culnane M, Fowler MG, Lee SS, et al. Lack of long-term effects of in utero exposure to zidovudine among uninfected children born to HIV-infected women. JAMA 1999;281:151-157.
  55. Hanson IC, Antonelli TA, Sperling RS, et al. Lack of tumors in infants with perinatal HIV-1 exposure and fetal/neonatal exposure to zidovudine. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999;20:463-467.
  56. Bardeguez A, Mofenson LM, Fowler M, et al. Lack of clinical or immunologic disease progression with transient use of zidovudine (ZDV) to reduce perinatal HIV transmission in PACTG 076. 12th World AIDS Conference. Geneva, Switzerland, June 28-July 3, 1998 (Abstract 12233).
  57. Stiehm ER, Lambert JS, Mofenson LM, et al. Efficacy of zidovudine and hyperimmune HIV immunoglobulin for reducing perinatal HIV transmission from HIV-infected women with advanced disease: results of Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 185. J Infect Dis 1999;179:567-575.
  58. Shaffer N, Chuachoowong R, Mock PA, et al. Short-course zidovudine for perinatal HIV-1 transmission in Bangkok, Thailand: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 1999;353:773-780.
  59. Lallemant M, Jourdain G, Kim S, et al., A trial of shortened zidovudine regimens to prevent mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. N Engl J Med, 2000. 343: p. 982-991.
  60. Saba J on behalf of the PETRA Trial Study Team. Interim analysis of early efficacy of three short ZDV/3TC combination regimens to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1: the PETRA trial. Sixth Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Chicago, IL, January 1999 (Abstract S-7).
  61. Guay LA, Musoke P, Fleming T, et al. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 randomised trial. Lancet 1999;354:795-802.
  62. Wade NA, Birkhead GS, Warren BL, et al. Abbreviated regimens of zidovudine prophylaxis and perinatal transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med 1998;339:1409-1414.
  63. Wade N, Birkhead GS, French PT. Short courses of zidovudine and perinatal transmission of HIV. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1042-1043.
  64. CDC. Case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health-care workers after precutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood -- France, United Kingdom, and United States, Janury 1988 August 1994. MMWR 1995;44:929-933.
  65. Cao Y, Krogstad P, Korber BT, et al. Maternal HIV-1 viral load and vertical transmission of infection: The Ariel Project for the prevention of HIV transmission from mother to infant. Nature Medicine 1997;3:549-552.
  66. Dickover RE, Garratty EM, Horman SA, et al. Identification of levels of maternal HIV-1 RNA associated with risk of perinatal transmission: effect of maternal zidovudine treatment on viral load. JAMA 1996;275:599-605.
  67. Mayaux M-J, Dussaix E, Isopet J, et al. Maternal virus load during pregnancy and the mother-to- child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: the French Perinatal Cohort Studies. J Infect Dis 1997;175:172-175.
  68. Thea DM, Steketee RW, Pliner V, et al. The effect of maternal viral load on the risk of perinatal transmission of HIV-1. J Infect Dis 1997;175:707-711.
  69. Shapiro DE, Sperling RS, Coombs RW. Effect of zidovudine on perinatal HIV-1 transmission and maternal viral load. Lancet 1999;354:156.
  70. Mofenson LM, Lambert JS, Stiehm ER, et al. Risk factors for perinatal transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in women treated with zidovudine. N Engl J Med 1999;341:385-393.
  71. Garcia PM, Kalish LA, Pitt J, et al. Maternal levels of plasma human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA and the risk of perinatal transmission. N Engl J Med 1999;341:394-402.
  72. The European Collaborative Study. Maternal viral load and vertical transmission of HIV-1: an important factor but not the only one. AIDS 1999;13:1377-1385.
  73. Mock PA, Shaffer N, Bhadrakom C, et al. Maternal viral load and timing of mother-to-child transmission, Bangkok, Thailand. AIDS 1999;13:407-14.
  74. Shaffer N, Roongpisuthipong A, Siriwasin W, et al. Maternal virus load and perinatal human immunodeficiency virus subtype E transmission, Thailand. J Infect Dis 1999;179:590-599.
  75. Hart CE, Lennox JL, Pratt-Palmore M, et al. Correlation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA levels in blood and the female genital tract. J Infect Dis 1999;179:871-882.
  76. Iverson AKN, Larsen AR, Jensen T, et al. Distinct determinants of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA and DNA loads in vaginal and cervical secretions. J Infect Dis 1998;177:1214-1220.
  77. Shaheen F, Sison AV, McIntosh L, Mukhtar M, Pomerantz RJ. Analysis of HIV-1 in cervicovaginal secretions and blood of pregnant and non-pregnant women. J Hum Virol 1999;2:154-166.
  78. Rasheed S, Li Z, Xu D, Kovacs A. Presence of cell-free human immunodeficiency virus in cervicovaginal secretions is independent of viral load in the blood of human immunodeficiency virus-infected women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;175:122-129.
  79. Chuachoowong R, Shaffer N, Siriwasin W, et al. Short-course antenatal zidovudine reduces both cervicovaginal human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA levels and risk of perinatal transmission. J Infect Dis 2000;181:99-106.
  80. Melvin AJ, Burchett SK, Watts DH, et al. Effect of pregnancy and zidovudine therapy on viral load in HIV-1-infected women. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1997;14:232-236.
  81. Blattner W, Cooper E, Charurat M, et al., Effectiveness of potent antiretroviral therapies on reducing perinatal transmission of HIV-1. XIII International AIDS Conference. Durban, South Africa, July 9-14, 2000 (Abstract LbOr4).
  82. McGowan JP, Crane M, Wiznia AA, Blum S. Combination antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus-infected pregnant women. Obstet Gynecol 1999;94:641-646.
  83. Tuomala R, Shapiro D, Samelson R, et al., Antepartum antiretroviral therapy and viral load in 464 HIV-infected women in 1998-1999 (PACTG 367). Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2000. 182 (part 2): Abstract 285.
  84. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologist Technical Bulletin. Preconceptional Care. Number 205, May 1995.
  85. Burns DN, Landesman S, Muenz LR, et al. Cigarette smoking, premature rupture of membranes and vertical transmission of HIV-1 among women with low CD4 levels. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1994;7:718-726.
  86. Turner BJ, Hauck WW, Fanning R, Markson LE. Cigarette smoking and maternal-child HIV transmission. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Human Retrovirol 1997;14:327-337.
  87. Rodriguez EM, Mofenson LM, Chang B-H, et al. Association of maternal drug use during pregnancy with maternal HIV culture postivity and perinatal HIV transmission. AIDS 1996;10:273-282.
  88. Bulterys M, Landesman S, Burns DN, Rubinstein A, Goedert J. Sexual behavior and injection drug use during pregnancy and vertical transmission of HIV-1. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Human Retrovirol 1997;15:76-82.
  89. Matheson PB, Thomas PA, Abrams EJ, et al. Heterosexual behavior during pregnancy and perinatal transmission of HIV-1. AIDS 1996;10:1249-1256.
  90. CDC. Recommendations for assisting in the prevention of perinatal transmission of human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. MMWR 1985;34:721-726.
  91. Rodman JH, Robbins BL, Flynn PM, Fridland A. A systemic and cellular model for zidovudine plasma concentrations and intracellular phosphorylation in patients. J Infect Dis 1996;174: 490-499.
  92. Barry MG, Khoo SH, Beal GJ, et al. The effect of zidovudine dose on the formation of intracellular phosphorylated metabolites. AIDS 1996;10:1361-1367.
  93. Gambertoglio JG, Peter K. Zidovudine phosphorylation after short term and long term therapy with zidovudine in patients infected with HIV. Clin Pharmacol Therapy 1996;60:168-176.
  94. Mulder JW, Cooper DA, Mathiesen L, et al. Zidovudine twice daily in asymptomatic subjects with HIV infection and a high risk of progression to AIDS: a randomized, double-blind placebo controlled study. AIDS 1994;8:313-321.
  95. Mannucci PM, Gringeri A, Savidge G, et al. Randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of twice-daily zidovudine in asymptomatic haemophiliacs infected with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Brit J Haematol 1994;86:174-179.
  96. Cooper DA, Gatell JM, Kroon S, et al. Zidovudine in persons with asymptomatic HIV infection and CD4+ cell counts greater than 400 per cubic millimeter. N Engl J Med 1993;329:297-303.
  97. Boucher FD, Modlin JF, Weller S, et al. Phase I evaluation of zidovudine administered to infants exposed at birth to the human immunodeficiency virus. J Pediatr 1993;122:1137-1144.
  98. Mirochnick M, Capparelli E, Dankner W, et al. Zidovudine pharmacokinetics in premature infants exposed to human immunodeficiency virus. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 1998;42:808-812.
  99. Clarke JR, Braganza R, Mirza A, et al., Rapid development of genotypic resistance to lamivudine when combined with zidovudine in pregnancy. J Med Virol, 1999. 59: p. 364-368.
  100. The Delta Coordinating Committee. Delta: a randomised double-blind controlled trial comparing combinations of zidovudine plus didanosine or zalcitabine with zidovudine alone in HIV-infected individuals. Lancet 1996;348:283-291.
  101. Hammer SM, Katzenstein DA, Hughes MD, et al. A trial comparing nucleoside monotherapy with combination therapy in HIV-infected adults with CD4 cell counts from 200 to 500 per cubic millimeter. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1081-1090.
  102. Saravolatz LD, Winslow DL, Collins G et al. Zidovudine alone or in combination with didanosine or zalcitabine in HIV-infected patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or fewer than 200 CD4 cells per cubic millimeter. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1099-1106.
  103. Kuritzkes DR. Clinical significance of drug resistance in HIV-1 infection. AIDS 1996;10 (suppl 5):S27-S31.
  104. Japour AJ, Welles S, D'Aquila RT, et al. Prevalence and clinical significance of zidovudine resistance mutations in human immunodeficiency virus isolated from patients after long-term zidovudine treatment. J Infect Dis 1995;171;1172-1179.
  105. Jackson JB, Mracnz M, Guay L, et al., Selection of nevirapine (NVP) resistance mutations in Ugandan women and infants receiving NVP prophylaxis to prevent HIV-1 vertical transmission (HIVNET 012). XIII International AIDS Conference. Durban, South Africa, July 9-14, 2000 (Abstract LbOr13).
  106. Jackson JB, Becker-Pergola G, Guay L, et al., Identification of the K103N resistance mutation in Ugandan women receiving nevirapine to prevent HIV-1 vertical transmission. AIDS, 2000. 14: p. F111-F115.
  107. Sullivan J, Cunningham C, Dorenbaum A, et al., Genotypic resistance analysis in women participating in PACTG 316 with HIV-1 RNA >=10,000 copies/mL. XIII International AIDS Conference. Durban, South Africa, July 9-14, 2000 (Abstract LbOr14).
  108. Hirsch MS, Brun-Vezinet F, D'Aquila RT, et al for the International AIDS Society-USA Panel. Antiretroviral drug resistance testing in adult HIV-1 infection: recommendations of an International AIDS Society-USA Panel. JAMA, 2000. 283: p. 2417-2426.
  109. Welles SL, Pitt J, Colgrove R, et al., HIV-1 genotypic zidovudine drug resistance and the risk of maternal-infant transmission in the Women and Infants Transmission Study. AIDS, 2000. 14: p. 263-271.
  110. Colgrove RC, Pitt J, Chung PH, et al., Selective vertical transmission of HIV-1 antiretroviral resistance mutations. AIDS, 1998. 12: p. 2281-2288.
  111. Kully C, Yerly S, Erb P, et al., Codon 215 mutations in human immunodeficiency virus-infected pregnant women. J Infect Dis, 1999. 179: p. 705-708.
  112. Miotti PG, Taha TET, Kumwenda NI, et al., HIV transmission through breastfeeding - a study in Malawi. JAMA, 1999. 282: p. 744-749.
  113. Moodley D. The SAINT Trial: nevirapine (NVP) versus zidovudine (ZDV) + lamivudine (3TC) in prevention of peripartum HIV transmission. XIII International AIDS Conference. Durban, South Africa. July 2001. Abstract LbOr2. Koup RA, Brewster F, Grob P, Sullivan JL. Nevirapine synergistically inhibits HIV-1 replication in combination with zidovudine, interferon or CD4 immunoadhesin. AIDS 1993;7:1181-1184.
  114. Koup RA, Brewster F, Grob P, Sullivan JL., Nevirapine synergistically inhibits HIV-1 replication in combination with zidovudine, interferon or CD4 immunoadhesin. AIDS, 1993. 7: p. 1181-1184.
  115. Musoke P, Gyay L, Bagenda D, et al. A phase I/II study of the saftey and pharmacokinetics of nevirapine in HIV-1-infected pregnant Ugandan women and their neonates (HIVNET 006). AIDS 1999;13:479-486.
  116. Zhang H, Dornadula G, Wu Y, Havlir D, Richman DD, Pomerantz RJ. Kinetic analysis of intravirion reverse transcription in the blood plasma of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected individuals: direct assessment of resistance to reverse transcriptase inhibitors in vivo. J Virol 1996;70:628-634.
  117. Frenkel LM, Wagner LE, Demeter LM, et al. Effects of zidovudine use during pregnancy on resistance and vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Clin Infect Dis
  118. Wainberg MA, Friedland G. Public health implications of antiretroviral therapy and HIV drug resistance. JAMA 1998;279:1977-1983.
  119. Little SJ, Daar ES, D'Aquila RT, et al. Reduced antiretroviral drug susceptibility among patients with primary infection. JAMA 1999;282:1142-1149.
  120. Boden D, Hurley A, Zhang L, et al. HIV-1 drug resistance in newly infected individuals. JAMA 1999;282:1135-1141.
  121. Pomerantz RJ. Primary HIV-1 resistance: a new phase in the epidemic? JAMA 1999;282:1177-1179.
  122. Palumbo P, Dobbs T, Holland B, et al. Antiretroviral (ARV) resistance mutations among pregnant, HIV-infected women: frequency and clinical correlates. 2nd Conference on Global Strategies for the Prevention of HIV Transmission from Mothers to Infants. Montreal, Canada, September 1-6, 1999 (Abstract 256).
  123. Van Rompay KKA, Otsyula MG, Marthas ML, Miller C, McChesney MB, Pedersen NC. Immediate zidovudine treatment protects simian immunodeficiency virus-infected newborn macaques against rapid onset of AIDS. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995;39:125-131.
  124. Tsai C-C, Follis KE, Sabo A, et al. Prevention of SIV infection in macaques by (R)-9-(2- phosphonylmethoxypropyl)adenine. Science 1995;270:1197-1199.
  125. Bottiger D, Johansson N-G, Samuelsson B, et al. Prevention of simian immunodeficiency virus, SIVsm, or HIV-2 infection in cynomolgus monkeys by pre- and postexposure administration of BEA-005. AIDS 1997;11:157-162.
  126. Mathes LE, Polas PJ, Hayes KA, et al. Pre- and post-exposure chemoprophylaxis: evidence that 3'-azido-3'dideoxythymidine (AZT) inhibits feline leukemia virus diseases by a drug-induced vaccine effect. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992;36:2715-2721.
  127. Dunn DT, Brandt CD, Krivine A, et al. The sensitivity of HIV-1 DNA polymerase chain reaction in the neonatal period and the relative contributions of intra-uterine and intra-partum transmission. AIDS 1995;9:F7-F11.
  128. The International Perinatal HIV Group. The Mode of Delivery and the Risk of Vertical Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 - a Meta-Analysis of 15 Prospective Cohort Studies. N Engl J Med, 1999. 340: p. 977-987.
  129. The European Mode of Delivery Collaboration. Elective cesarean-section versus vaginal delivery in prevention of vertical HIV-1 transmission: a randomized clinical trial. Lancet, 1999. 353: p. 1035-1039.
  130. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Committee Opinion. Scheduled cesarean delivery and the prevention of vertical transmission of HIV infection. Number 234, May 2000.
  131. Burns DN, Landesman S, Wright DJ, et al., Influence of other maternal variables on the relationship between maternal virus load and mother-to-infant transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Infect Dis , 1997. 175: p. 1206-1210.
  132. Coll O, Hernandez M, Boucher CAB, et al., Vertical HIV-1 transmission correlates with a high maternal viral load at delivery. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol, 1997. 14: p. 26-30.
  133. Van Dyke RB, Korber BT, Popek E, et al., The Ariel Project: A prospective cohort study of maternal-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the era of maternal antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis, 1999. 179: p. 319-328.
  134. Samelson R, Shapiro D, Tuomala, et al., HIV vertical transmission rates according to antiretroviral therapy and viral load during pregnancy among 347 mother-child pairs 1998- 99 (PACTG 367). Poster presentation at the Society for Maternal Fetal Medicine annual meeting, Miami Beach, FL, January, 2000, Abstract 276.
  135. Clarke SM, Mulcahy F, Healy CM, et al., The efficacy and tolerability of combination antiretroviral therapy in pregnancy: infant and maternal outcome. Internat J STD AIDS, 2000. 11: p. 220-223.
  136. Beckerman KP, Morris AB, Stek A., Mode of delivery and the risk of vertical transmission of HIV-1. (letter). N Engl J Med, 1999. 341: p. 205.
  137. Helfgott A, Eriksen N, Lewis S, et al., Highly active antiretroviral therapy for the prevention of perinatal HIV. Poster presentation at the Society for Maternal Fetal Medicine annual meeting, Miami Beach, FL, January, 2000, Abstract 289.
  138. Nielsen TF, Hakegaard KH., Postoperative cesarean section morbidity: a prospective study. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 1983. 146: p. 911-915.
  139. Hebert PR, Reed G, Entman SS, Mitchell EF, Berg C, Griffin MR ., Serious maternal morbidity after childbirth: prolonged hospital stays and readmissions. Obstet Gynecol, 1999. 94: p. 942-947.
  140. Roman J, Bakos O, Cnattingius S., Pregnancy outcomes by mode of delivery among term breech births: Swedish experience 1987-1993. Obstet Gynecol, 1998. 92: p. 945-950.
  141. Gregory KD, Henry OA, Ramicone E, Chan LS, Platt LD., Maternal and infant complications in high and normal weight infants by method of delivery. Obstet Gynecol, 1998. 92: p. 507-513.
  142. Schiff E, Friedman SA, Mashiach S, Hart O, Barkai G, Sibai BM., Maternal and neonatal outcome of 846 term singleton breech deliveries: seven-year experience at a single center. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 1996. 175: p. 18-23.
  143. Van Ham MAPC, van Dongen PWJ, Mulder J., Maternal consequences of caesarean section. A retrospective study of intra-operative and postoperative maternal complications of caesarean section during a 10-year period. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Repro Biol, 1997. 74: p. 1-6.
  144. McMahon MJ, Luther ER, Bowes WA Jr., Olshan AF., Comparison of a trial of labor with an elective second cesarean section. N Engl J Med, 1996. 335: p. 689-695.
  145. Watts DH, Lambert JS, Stiehm ER, et al for the Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group 185 Team., Complications according to mode of delivery among HIV-infected women with CD4 lymphocyte counts of 500 or less. Amer J Obstet Gynecol, 2000. 173: p. 100-107.
  146. Read J, Kpamegan E, Tuomala R, et al., Mode of delivery and postpartum morbidity among HIV-infected women: The Women and Infants Transmission Study (WITS). In: Abstracts of the 6th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, Chicago, January 31-February 4, 1999. Abstract 683.
  147. Semprini AE, Castagna C, Ravizza M, et al., The incidence of complications after cesarean section in 156 HIV-positive women. AIDS, 1996. 9: p. 913-917.
  148. Grubert TA, Reindell D, Kastner R, et al., Complications after caesarean section in HIV-1- infected women not taking antiretroviral treatment. Lancet, 1999. 354: p. 1612-1613.
  149. Maiques-Montesinos V, Cervera-Sanchez J, Bellver-Pradas J, et al., Post-cesarean section morbidity in HIV-positive women. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 1999. 78: p. 789- 792.
  150. Vimercati A, Greco P, Loverro G, et al., Maternal complications after caesarean section in HIV infected women. Europ J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 2000. 90: p. 73-76.
  151. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Educational Bulletin. Assessment of fetal lung maturity. Number 230. November, 1996.
  152. Parilla BV, Dooley SL, Jansen RD, Socol ML., Iatrogenic respiratory distress syndrome following elective repeat cesarean delivery. Obstet Gynecol, 1993. 81: p. 392-395.
  153. Madar J, Richmond S, Hey E., Surfactant-deficient respiratory distress after elective delivery at "term". Acta Paediatr, 1999. 88: p. 1244-1248.
  154. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Educational Bulletin. Antimicrobial therapy for obstetric patients. Number 245, March 1998.
  155. Minkoff H, Burns DN, Landesman S, et al., The relationship of the duration of ruptured membranes to vertical transmission of human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 1995. 173: p. 585-589.
  156. Landesman SH, Kalish LA, Burns DN, et al., Obstetrical factors and the transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to child. N Engl J Med, 1996. 334: p. 1617-1623.
  157. Mandelbrot L, Mayaux MJ, Bongain A, et al., Obstetric factors and mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: The French Perinatal Cohorts. SEROGEST French Pediatric HIV Infection Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 1996. 175: p. 661-667.
  158. Shapiro DE, Sperling RS, Mandelbrot L et al., Risk factors for perinatal human immunodeficiency virus transmission in patients receiving zidovudine prophylaxis. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group protocol 076 Study Group. Obstet Gynecol, 1999. 94: p. 897-908.
  159. Boyer PJ, Dillon M, Navaie M et al., Factors predictive of maternal-fetal transmission of HIV-1: preliminary analysis of zidovudine given during pregnancy and/or delivery. JAMA, 1994. 271: p. 1925-1930.
  160. The Women and Infants Transmission Study Investigators. Trends in mother-to-infant transmission of HIV in the WITS cohort: Impact of 076 and HAART therapy. Presented at the XIII International AIDS Conference, Durban, South Africa, July, 2000, Abstract LBOr4.
  161. Kind C, Rudin C, Siegrisi CA et al., Prevention of vertical HIV transmission: additive protective effect of elective cesarean section and zidovudine prophylaxis. AIDS, 1998. 12: p. 205-210.
  162. Miotti PG, Liomba G, Dallabetta GA, Hoover DR, Chiphangwi JD, Saah AJ. T-lymphocyte subsets during and after pregnancy: analysis in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected and uninfected Malawian mothers. J Infect Dis 1992;165:1116-1119.
  163. Tuomala RE, Kalish LA, Zorilla C, et al. Changes in total, CD4+, and CD8+ lymphocytes during pregnancy and 1 year postpartum in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women. Obstet Gynecol 1997;89:967-974.
  164. CDC. 1995 revised guidelines for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia for children infected with or perinatally exposed to human immunodeficiency virus. MMWR 1995; 44:1-11.
  165. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Pediatric AIDS. Evaluation and medical management of the HIV-exposed infant. Pediatrics 1997;99:909-917.
  166. Kovacs A, Xu J, Rasheed S, et al. Comparison of a rapid nonisotopic polymerase chain reaction assay with four commonly used methods for the early diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection in neonates and children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995;14:948-954.

The Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) Series is prepared by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and is available free of charge in electronic format and on a paid subscription basis for paper copy. To receive an electronic copy on Friday of each week, send an e-mail message to listserv@listserv.cdc.gov. The body content should read SUBscribe mmwr-toc. Electronic copy also is available from CDC's World-Wide Web server at http://www.cdc.gov/ or from CDC's file transfer protocol server at ftp.cdc.gov. To subscribe for paper copy, contact Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402; telephone (202) 512-1800.

Data in the weekly MMWR are provisional, based on weekly reports to CDC by state health departments. The reporting week concludes at close of business on Friday; compiled data on a national basis are officially released to the public on the following Friday. Address inquiries about the MMWR Series, including material to be considered for publication, to: Editor, MMWR Series, Mailstop C-08, CDC, 1600 Clifton Rd., N.E., Atlanta, GA 30333; telephone (888) 232-3228.

All material in the MMWR Series is in the public domain and may be used and reprinted without permission; citation as to source, however, is appreciated.

U.S. Government Printing Office: 1998-633-228/67051 Region IV MMWR





Copyright © 2001. The National AIDS Education and Training Centers Program on behalf of its AETC National Resource Center. All rights reserved.

Physicians and other health care professionals are encouraged to consult other sources and confirm the information contained in this site because no single reference or service can take the place of medical training, education, and experience. Consumers are cautioned that this site is not intended to provide medical advice about any specific medical condition they may have or treatment they may need, and they are encouraged to call or see their physician or other health care provider promptly with any health related questions they may have.